Welcome to the Amplification Atlas, in this book we will illustrate how disinformation is circulated in the online and offline world, and who is responsible…
Amplification refers to the way that disinformation and conspiracy theories grow and spread. Like a virus, these ideas can multiply very quickly, especially if they have the right conditions in which to flourish. Once they infect one person, they can be very contagious, and can affect people all over the world, and specifically those who are vulnerable to these ideas.
Particularly in the online world, it is important to be aware of how conspiracy theories circulate, who buys into them, who shares them, and more importantly who benefits from them.
Some conspiracy theories fade away without ever moving past the dark corners of the internet, while some evolve and expand into the mainstream, and sometimes even spill out onto the streets.
Often, these conspiracies often begin in one specific country, but if the conspiracy recipe is especially appetising or easy to follow, it will be reproduced by people all around the world. With some of the most popular conspiracies, the recipe is almost copied word for word, with some substitutions of local ingredients, such as national stereotypes and prejudices, different political characters, historical contexts or population make-ups.
Amplification works best when there is a trending online conversation to add your conspiracies to, especially when people are emotional about an event. This strategy is being used all the time, following four easy steps:
Online and offline, there are many people who help to spread disinformation and conspiracy theories across the globe. But some of these people have access to much bigger platforms than others, and therefore are able to amplify this disinformation to a lot more people.
Some of these ‘super-spreaders’ might be people who were already famous or influential in other spheres, and some might be people who have created this platform by spreading this disinformation.
There are those who have created a career out of being an amplifier for disinformation, and some who have ruined their career because of this. Let’s explore some of the different personas that you can meet all over the world.
One way that conspiracy theories and disinformation are spread, both offline and online, are by politicians. They often have a large platform, with the opportunity to speak to very powerful people in parliament or other political institutions, and the ability to speak to ordinary people on campaign trails or at political rallies.
Thierry Baudet is the founder and leader of the far-right, populist party Forum for Democracy (FvD). He has been a member of the Dutch House of Representatives since 2017. In the 5 years that he has been a politician in the Netherlands he has been controversial because of his political views, his promotion of conspiracy theories, and his personal attacks on his opponents.
For politicians such as Thierry Baudet in the Netherlands, giving time to speaking about conspiracy theories is often a useful way to mobilise your voters and potential voters. Baudet, as well as targeting his fellow Dutch politicians, also spreads some popular international conspiracy theories. In September 2022, several politicians walked out of parliament, in protest at a speech that Baudet was giving in which he was claiming that the ‘elites’ were trying to subjugate ordinary citizens through measures such as vaccines and QR codes, and using conspiracy buzzwords such as ‘The Great Reset’. The talking points that Baudet brings up in his speeches often echo those of the Kremlin, but it is not clear if he is carrying out Russian propaganda or if he genuinely believes these theories.
“He wants us to believe nothing anymore,” says Russian expert Hubert Smeets. “Because if the population doesn’t believe anything anymore, then you can tell them everything.”
While his extreme views won’t appeal to any broad swathes of the voting population, it is likely that they will be successful in mobilising a select few people, mostly those already within the FvD voting base. Populism and conspiracy theories tend to go well together, and it isn’t a huge step for these politicians and their voters to believe in conspiracy theories.
This is a character who appears in countries around the globe, particularly in right-wing parties. Can you think of any examples of this persona in your country? People such as Marjorie Taylor-Greene in the USA, Slavi Trifonov in Bulgaria, or Christina Baum in Germany.
Across the North Sea, another figure is using proximity to conspiracy theories to his advantage. Russell Brand is an English comedian and actor who has in recent years turned his attention to YouTube. With his personal website now describing him as a ‘public thought leader’ as well as comedian and actor, it is clear that he takes this position seriously, speaking now to more than 6 million subscribers to his YouTube channel.
As well as a lot of content around the topics of wellbeing and spirituality, Brand also has been criticised for dabbling in some conspiracy theories, particularly around the pandemic, as well as interviewing some controversial figures such as Ben Shapiro, Candace Owens, and Jordan Peterson.
While Brand himself does not always claim to support or believe in these theories, he has been criticised for treating far-right and unsubstantiated sources with much less scepticism than he treats the mainstream media. He has been compared to Joe Rogan, both of whom came from the world of comedy and acting, have huge audiences on their channels, and present themselves as having a sincere willingness to question everything. However, just like with public figures such as Thierry Baudet, encouraging your followers to believe in nothing, often leaves them open to believing whatever you tell them is true.
“Podcasts sometimes encourage the belief that public debates between experts are a reliable means to obtain scientific knowledge. They are not”, says Tristan Flock.
Many of Brand’s video titles are deliberately alarmist, with titles such as ‘This is F*cking Terrifying’ and ‘Hang On, Pfizer Just Admitted WHAT?’. This echoes the concerns that have been levelled against streaming services such as YouTube, that the way their algorithm works allows conspiracy theories and disinformation to spread, often amplifying some of the most sensationalist content to capture attention and sell ads.
Whether or not content creators like Brand actually believe in any of the conspiracy theories they explore on their podcasts and videos, their huge platform means that any mention of conspiracy theories is reaching millions of people, some of whom might not be as sceptical as these celebrity hosts.
Back on the continent, other celebrities’ careers haven’t benefited in the same way from peddling conspiracy theories, and in fact their association with these theories and disinformation appears to have had a huge negative impact on their careers. Nicolas Müller was a Swiss snowboarder with a very distinguished career, considered by many to be one of the greatest snowboarders of all time. He won TransWorld Snowboarding Magazine’s Rider of the Year twice, as well as Snowboarder Magazine’s Rider of the Year in 2013.
Throughout his career, Müller was interested in environmental activism, being President of the Breathe Foundation, an environmental charity, and being well known for living an ‘eco-friendly lifestyle’. In 2020, he began spreading conspiracy theories on social media to his then-200,000 followers, firstly related to the coronavirus pandemic, being critical and suspicious of the lockdowns and the vaccine. This developed into peddling larger conspiracy theories, containing ideas about Bill Gates and George Soros, 5G and the creation of a ‘new world order’, and content that is supportive of politicians like Putin and Donald Trump.
It was later in 2020, following the death of George Floyd, that Müller’s interest in conspiracy theories impacted on his snowboarding career. In the aftermath of Floyd’s death, Müller shared content on social media that suggested that George Floyd’s death was a hoax, and that it was part of an attempt to start a race war in the United States. Although they did not state explicitly the reasons for doing so, three brands, ThirtyTwo, Gnu and Oakley Inc. all ended their sponsorship contracts with Müller.
Other celebrities began posting similar messages on social media during the coronavirus pandemic in protest at the vaccination or lockdown measures. Dutch model Doutzen Kroes had often posted on her Instagram about wellness and spirituality, but in 2021 she started posting what some people deemed as harmful anti-vaccination information to her 8 million followers.
For some high profile figures who have been deeply involved in spreading disinformation and conspiracy theories, we have seen them come out the other side, and recognise and denounce the views that they had amplified. These figures can provide insight into the way people become interested in conspiracy theories, as well as how they can be drawn out of the movements.
Next door in Germany, is the example of the case of Xavier Naidoo, a famous German soul and R&B singer and a founder of the group Söhne Mannheims as well as two record labels.
Despite being a successful musical artist since the 1990s, Naidoo has garnered controversy over the years for views he expressed both in his lyrics and in public statements, that many viewed as homophobic, anti-semitic, racist, or that helped to spread dangerous conspiracy theories. In 2012, Naidoo and the rapper Kool Savas released a hidden track on an album with lyrics that equated homosexuals with paedophiles. Other lyrics of Naidoo’s have employed references to racist and anti-semitic tropes. In 2020, through a series of videos posted on Telegram, Naidoo expressed his disbelief in both climate change and the Covid-19 pandemic, as well as referencing QAnon conspiracies connected to ‘shadow governments’ and child sacrifice. In 2021, a constitutional court ruled that a lecturer was allowed to refer to Naidoo as an anti-Semite due to remarks he had made in the public sphere.
Over the years, Naidoo aligned himself with controversial groups such as the Reichsbürger, a far-right group who believes in the expansion of Germany past its current borders. Xavier Naidoo publicly aligned himself with this view, referring to Germany as an ‘occupied’ country. In 2014, he spoke at a ‘Storming of the Reichstag’ protest in Berlin, organised by the Reichsbürger, to a crowd which was said to include neo-Nazis, anti-Semites, and conspiracy theorists. In 2016, Naidoo’s was announced as Germany’s entry to that year’s Eurovision Song Contest, but he was quickly replaced due to the backlash received, in response to his dangerous views.
However, in April 2022 Naidoo published a YouTube video on his channel, titled ‘#OneLove’ in which he admitted to having got lost and ‘blinded’ by conspiracy theories. He said that in recent years he had opened up to different theories and perspectives which he now completely distances himself from, and to groups which he has now broken away from. Naidoo referenced the war in Ukraine as the catalyst for this change of heart, forcing him to reconsider his world views and the damage he was doing.
One of the best ways we can learn how to combat disinformation is from people who have experience of being part of a conspiracy community and have since left. From figures such as Naidoo, or Melissa Rein Lively from the USA who has spoken out against the devastating effects that joining the QAnon movement have had on her life, we can learn how people get sucked into these communities, and how they can be wrenched out.
Of course, these are not the only personas we see amplifying disinformation and spreading conspiracy theories, there are others such as “I’m just using my freedom of speech”, “I’m just trying to stay relevant”, or “I just like the attention”. Can you think of any others?
Kanye West
“I’m just trying to be controversial”
The rapper Kanye West has enjoyed stirring up controversy throughout his career, think of him crashing the stage at the VMAs during Taylor Swift’s 2009 awards acceptance speech. In recent years he has moved towards the right-wing, starting with things like wearing a ‘Make America Great Again’ hat or a ‘White Lives Matter’ t-shirt. While many people wondered if these were just PR stunts, West has recently moved into more controversial ground, making explicitly antisemitic comments and hanging out with white supremacists like Nick Fuentes.
Tucker Carlson
“I’m just a commentator”
While many far-right media personalities, despite having large followings, are generally consigned to more niche corners of the media landscape like YouTube or podcasting, Tucker Carlson broadcasts extreme views and conspiracy theories on the most-watched show on primetime cable news five times a week. The Tucker Carlson Show, with more than 3 million viewers, regularly uses polarising ‘us vs them’ narratives, mentions conspiracies such as the ‘Great Replacement Theory’ and refers often to the ‘ruling class’ who manufacture everything from the coronavirus pandemic to climate change.
In order to avoid amplifying these stories all over the world, ask yourself a couple of questions before you engage:
If you do decide to engage, think about what kind of persona you are talking to, what are they getting out of spreading these stories. Does it provide them with a sense of certainty, are they using it for political gain, are they just trying to provoke?
Here are some tips:
If the account that posted the conspiracy is irrelevant to the discussion, it's good practice to blur/crop it out, and not link to it.
If you are sharing any misinformation, make sure it is extremely clear that it is misinformation. You can draw a red diagonal line through an image/text, or make it very explicit that the content is fake.
Think about what audience you’re addressing: are you talking to the original poster, or passive bystanders who are only looking at the conversation without contributing?
Don’t repeat binaries; disinformation thrives on polarisation. People will believe and share anything that seemingly aligns to their perceived social identity. Avoid falling into this trap.
Don't end up in a yes-vs-no debate, ask questions, make your point, respond to their open questions, point to the facts and move on, you don’t have to defend yourself.
Many people who share conspiracy theories feel attacked when you call them out, so avoid shame, avoid focusing on an individual's beliefs, and avoid positioning yourself as an arbiter of truth.
